CAMPING IN SARDINIA & CORSICA 2009 - A PROLOGUE:

After a refreshing hibernation, the pull of the road begins to re-assert itself: the destination for our Spring 2009 trip is settled on Sardinia and Corsica. As usual, early Spring travel brings its own additional challenges: finding campsites open for the drive down through France and Italy, and the uncertainty of weather conditions crossing the Alps by our favoured Fréjus Tunnel route. There is a bewildering choice of ferry crossings to Sardinia from Italy, depending on how far you want to brave the hazards of the Italian autostrada. One thing they all have in common: they are expensive, but we have opted for the Livorno to Olbia route using Moby Lines Ferries. As always, we recommend  www.viamare.com  for details of Mediterranean ferry routes.

What attracts us to explore these two Mediterranean islands is the fact that, although now provinces of the Italian (Sardinia) and French (Corsica) states, both islands manage to retain their unique cultures which owe much to their fascinating histories. As always in our Prologue we give a foretaste of the topographical, cultural and historical backgrounds of our two host islands.

SARDINIA:

GEOGRAPHY and CULTURE:  set 200 kms from both the Italian mainland and North African coast, Sardinia is the Mediterranean's 2nd largest island after Sicily, with a population of 1.6 million. Although on the sidelines of mainstream Mediterranean historical events, the island's strategic position on trade routes meant that it has rarely been free of foreign intervention which has left a rich archaeological, artistic and cultural legacy. The official Sardinian flag shows four blindfolded Moorish heads, similar to the Corsican flag; its origins are thought to represent captured North African pirates whose raids plagued the island for centuries, hence its name The Four Moors (Quattro Mori).

Most of Sardinia is a mountainous plateau gradually sloping to the sea, covered with Holm and cork oaks; the highest point, Punta La Marmora, rises to 1,834m (6,016 feet). The lower rocky coastal terrain is like Corsica covered by an impenetrable scrub (macchia in Italian) of characteristic aromatic shrubs such as myrtle, arbutus, mastic, and lentisk, blossoming in Spring with brightly coloured cistus flowers.

Despite centuries of occupation, finally becoming part of the kingdom of Italy in 1861, Sardinia has retained an untamed and fiercely independent cultural identity. Ancient traditions, now deeply rooted in Catholicism but showing traces of far older pre-Christian religious inheritance, can be seen in the many festivals often based on the close relationship between islanders and their natural environment. Sardinia's isolated position has produced a dialect so distinct as to constitute an almost separate language; although a Romance language of Latin origin, Sard has been influenced by Catalan and Spanish, with an obscure Pre-Roman element, including Phoenician, Etruscan, and Near Eastern languages. While it has been largely supplanted by Italian for official purposes, Sard is still widely spoken in inland rural parts and, stemming from a long history of oral tradition, is used in folk songs and poetry. Music and dancing feature strongly in Sardinian culture: the tradition of cantu a chiterra (guitar songs) has its origins in town squares, with artists competing against one another. Sardinia is home also to one of the oldest forms of vocal polyphony, known as cantu a tenore, recorded by the now world-famous traditional four-part polyphonic singing group, the Tenores di Bitti from the town of Bitti in the central mountainous region.

SARDINIAN HISTORY:

Early history:  the origin of the indigenous Sards is unknown, but the earliest traces of human settlement go back beyond 6,000 BC when a hunting and pastoral society occupied villages on the island, later trading in flint, obsidian and ceramics with neighbouring Mediterranean islands. The succeeding Nuraghic Culture, which flourished on Sardinia from the mid-third millennium BC and reached its apogee in the eighth century BC, has left imposing stone-built remains of their tower-fortifications around the island. Constructed like Greek tholos tombs, these towers protected elaborate settlement-complexes such as those at Su Nuraxi. Phoenicians from the eastern Mediterranean established peaceful trading colonies on Sardinia from around 900 BC, attracted here by the island's mineral resources. They were supplanted by the more aggressive Carthaginians from near Tunis who incorporated the island into their expanding empire, destroying or assimilating the Nuraghic Culture and Phoenicians. The emerging power of Rome brought inevitable clash with Carthage, whose empire was finally destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC. Under Roman rule, Sardinia was bled of its agricultural and mineral resources, while native Sards continued a semi-autonomous existence in the island's interior. As well as substantial remains of Roman occupation, Rome's lasting legacy to Sardinia was the marked Latin elements still to be heard in the Sard dialect today.

Medieval Sardinia:  with the Roman Empire's collapse in the 5th century AD, Sardinia shared the fate of other former Roman territories becoming increasingly vulnerable to plundering raids from barbarian Vandals, and later becoming a western outpost of the Byzantine Empire. The island increasingly became the preserve of local aristocratic powerful families who ruled Sardinia's four territorial divisions, the Giudicati (see left) as independent principalities. Faced with raids on Sardinia by the expanding Moorish empires from North Africa and Spain, the papacy encouraged the mercantile republics of Pisa and Genoa to intervene and from 1000 AD, Sardinia enjoyed increasingly open trading, political and artistic links with mainland Italy as seen in the legacy of Romanesque churches of that period. By lending support in the various conflicts between the Giudicati, the rival cities of Pisa and Genoa took an increasingly active role in Sardinian affairs. During the 14th century, the Spanish kingdom of Aragon made claims on Sardinia; the ensuing struggle between Aragon and the aristocratic Giudicati for command of the island lasted for more than a century. The island's cause was championed by Eleanor of Arborea (see right) who granted Sardinia its first written code of laws (Carta de Logu) and is still revered today for stemming the Aragonese advance. Her rule marked the final glorious chapter of Sardinian independence, but after her death in 1404, the Aragonese finally controlled all of Sardinia, a rule which lasted for three centuries. Compared with the preceding turmoil, this was an unusually peaceful period but still with no improvements in the lot of the Sardinian people: there were few attempts to develop or improve infrastructure, and Sardinia was parcelled up between Aragonese feudal nobles and ruled by viceroys indifferent to the island's welfare. The island was afflicted by plague, famine and malaria, and the period of Spanish rule was a barren one for Sardinia which was relegated to the status of exploited and deprived backwater.

Kingdom of Sardinia, 19th Century unification with Italy, and the 20th century:  as Spanish power declined in the early years of the 18th century, events elsewhere in Europe impinged on Sardinia: negotiations following the War of Spanish Succession ceded the island first to Habsburg Austria then in 1718 to the Piedmontese Duchy of Savoy. Savoyard rule of the Kingdom of Sardinia brought some reconstruction, but serious economic and social crisis led to increasing unrest and resurgence of clan warfare, kidnappings and banditry in the rural interior. The deep-rooted cause of Sard hostility was the new ruling elite's intransigence and failure to abolish the feudal system. In the turmoil following the 1789 French Revolution, France attempted unsuccessfully to conquer Sardinia, but by 1795 the island was overwhelmed by revolution against Savoy rule and its feudal privileges; the leader of Sardinia's revolutionary demands for constitutional reform, Giovanni Angioy, is still today regarded as the greatest Sardinian patriot and national hero. The most noteworthy Savoyard 19th century ruler of Sardinia was Carlo Felice (1821~31) who modernised the island's infrastructure, building the main SS131 highway which runs the length of the island and still bears his name.

With the Unification of Italy in 1861, Sardinia became part of the Kingdom of Italy with Vittorio Emanuele as the new nation's first King. The island had earlier provided a base from which Garibaldi and his Thousand Redshirts embarked on the military campaigns leading to Risorgimento (struggle for nationhood). Italian unification brought new problems for Sardinia: adjusting to its role in a modern nation-state became the overriding theme of the next century. Despite improvements in infrastructure and industrialisation, Sardinia remained an exploited backwater: natural resources were plundered and agriculture suffered leading to soaring unemployment which further fuelled rural banditry. By the end of the 19th century, voting rights were enjoyed by less than 5% of Sardinia's population leaving the majority of islanders unrepresented. Despite this, Sardinian troops of the Brigata Sassari fought with distinction in WW1, albeit with heavy losses. Ironically, Sardinia had to wait for a ruthless, centralising Fascist dictatorship before real change began to be felt: Mussolini, who came to power in 1922, saw the backward island as fertile ground for his socio-economic experiments, particularly in the pursuit of Italian self-sufficiency. The island's rivers were dammed to provide irrigation and power, and the mining industry was developed to exploit mineral resources; land reclamation, agricultural colonies and foundation of new towns led to increased production. The island suffered badly from allied bombing in WW2, but to offset the post-war period of Sardinia's feeling of still being a second class member of the Italian state, subject to remote bureaucracy and irrelevant legislation, the island like Sicily was granted the status of autonomous regione with direct legislative control over transport, tourism, police, industry and agriculture. Foreign aid enabled the elimination of the age-old scourge of malaria; coastal marshlands were reclaimed making possible the development of agriculture, market gardens and orchards.

Sardinia today:  the late 20th century successful efforts belatedly to drag Sardinia out from its peripheral third world status can be felt today: in the towns at least, life is indistinguishable from that of mainland Italy. Much of the island's present day climate results from two 1960s developments: a programme of petro-chemical industrialisation, and development of the Costa Smeralda as an luxury holiday resort leading to the opening up of an increased tourist industry. Both have brought a degree of affluence to a substantial part of the population. The price of this tourist economy has been unrestrained development and unregulated degradation of parts of the island's natural environment in pursuit of short-tern profit for the few. But alongside this unwelcome aspect of tourist development, there is a new appreciation of traditional culture, dialect, folklore and music, and a corresponding pride in Sard identity. Despite the high levels of unemployment and resentment of Italian bureaucracy, there is general satisfaction with Sardinia's place within Italy and the EU; campaigning by the Partito Sardo d'Azione for Sardinia's independence is too marginal to exert significant influence. Sardinia's future is best symbolised by Renato Soru, the Sardinian-born head of the internet service provider Tiscali, President of the Regione di Sardegna, and head of the Centre-Left coalition with a controversial programme to reinvigorate the island's economy with external investment.

CORSICA:

GEOGRAPHY and CULTURE:  called by the ancient Greeks Kalliste (most beautiful), Corsica lies 190 miles south of Marseille and just 50 miles from the Tuscan coast. At just 183 kms in length and 85 kms in width, the island is half the size of Wales, one third the area of Sardinia, and is the most mountainous of Mediterranean islands; its highest point, Monte Cinto, at 2,706m (8,877 feet) is second only to Etna in height. The highlands are forested with oak, chestnut and pines, and like Sardinia, the lower slopes are covered with dense, spiny scrubland, maquis, which over the centuries has provided a hideout for bandits and fugitives and which gave its name to WW2 resistance fighters, maquisards. The French départments of Corse du Sud and Haute Corse together have some 260,000 inhabitants (and an estimated 30,000 wild boar!) with a half million more Corsicans now living in metropolitan France.

Like its neighbour Sardinia, Corsica's abundant natural resources and its strategic position on the Mediterranean seaways have across history attracted successive invaders. Few however have been able to subdue the islanders' fiercely independent and rebellious spirit. Two hundred years of French rule have had limited tangible impact on Corsicans whose indigenous language, Corsu, shows close affinity with medieval Tuscan from its Romance origins; 'Good Morning, how are you?' in Corsican is 'Bonghjurnu, Cumu hè?' Compare this with Italian. Unlike most European minority languages however, Corsu is spoken by over 80% of the island's native population. The Corsican flag, the Bandera Testa di Moru, showing the emblem of a Moor's Head with white bandanna, was adopted by 18th century nationalists in their struggle for independence and originates from past rule by the Kings of Aragon.

Having struggled for centuries to preserve their language and culture, Corsicans cling doggedly to their traditions. While their modern tourist economy and reliance on EU subsidies draws them closer into the European mainstream, interest in traditional Corsican music flourishes, particularly the haunting sound of polyphonic singing such as the hymn to the island's patroness Virgin Mary Diu vi salvi Regina (now playing). The Catholic year in Corsica is filled with festivals and rituals, some of which pre-date Christianity in origin. But alongside this, a darker side of Corsican traditional life coexists: mysterious religious brotherhoods, belief in the occult and primitive magic, second sight, the 'evil eye' and exorcism; 19th century blood feuds and murders prompted by offended family honour and clan rivalries have bequeathed us the word vendetta. Bombings and shootings motivated by violent opposition to French rule claimed 100s of lives during the 1980s and 90s; but the nationalist posturing of the FLNC (Front de la Libération Nationale de la Corse) separatist movement has more recently been discredited by links with Mafia racketeers, organised crime, extortion and turf-war killings. Today, despite the ubiquitous graffiti and vandalised road signs, such extremism enjoys little popular support.

CORSICA'S TURBULENT HISTORY:

Early history:  with its strategic setting on Mediterranean trade routes and the commercial appeal of its sheltered harbours, invasion, occupation and resistance have been recurring themes throughout Corsica's turbulent history. The island was originally settled by Neolithic hunter-gatherers as early as 7,000 BC; these indigenous peoples living in rock shelters were supplanted by further waves of settlers who brought agricultural skills, lived in villages and developed ceramics, weaving and eventually copper-working. Around 3,000 BC, subsequent migrants brought megalithic building skills and buried their dead in dolmens protected by alignments of standing stones; more distinctly, they erected menhirs in the form of anthropomorphic statues to honour their dead leaders. From 1,500 BC, these peaceful agricultural megalith-builders were driven north into the interior by new Bronze Age aggressors armed with metal weapons depicted on the sword-bearing menhirs at Filitosa. This has been called the Torréen culture after the corbelled towers (torres, similar to the Sardinian Nuraghi) guarding their fortified settlements (casteddu), whose remains are still to be seen around Corsica. Bronze weapons, ceramic artefacts and tholos-like tower-building skills suggest the Torréens had contact with Mycenaean Greece and other Mediterranean civilisations.

Successive invaders - 565 BC~500 AD:  over the next millennium, Corsica's history mirrored that of neighbouring Sardinia, with successive waves of colonists or invaders occupying the island and resisted by native Corsicans. In 565 BC Greeks from Phocaea in Asia Minor founded the trading colony of Alalia, Corsica's first urban settlement (modern Aléria on the east coast), introducing the Mediterranean staples of wheat, vine and olives. Within 30 years however, they were driven out by Etruscan forces and went on to found Marseille. In turn the Carthaginians added Corsica to their growing empire in 280 BC, but were later defeated by the Romans during the Punic Wars which eventually destroyed Carthage in 146 BC. Unlike previous invaders who were content to occupy coastal settlements leaving the inaccessible interior to indigenous islanders, the Romans over time conquered the whole island, crushing or enslaving the rebellious population. Corsica was exploited for its agricultural produce; the native population who survived learnt to speak Latin and were later Christianised. And so matters remained until the Roman empire imploded in the late 5th century AD.

Vandals, Byzantines, Lombards, Moors, and Genoans - 500~1729 AD:  reflecting the fate of Sardinia, hard times followed the Romans as successive waves of seaborne invaders drove the native Corsicans into the interior. The Vandals true to their image wrought havoc destroying Alalia after a millennium of civilisation. They in turn were helped on their way in 534 AD by Byzantine Greeks, to be succeeded in 725 AD by barbarous Lombards who soon overran Italy. After the Franks under Pepin had defeated the Lombards in 754 AD, Corsica was later gifted by his son Charlemagne to papal control. For the next 2 centuries, Corsica was harassed by marauding Moorish pirates. During these Dark Ages, local chieftains struggled to gain control, until the Pope officially handed Corsica to the Republic of Pisa to govern, bringing a degree of peace unknown since the Romans' departure. Increasingly however, Corsica became a pawn in the struggle between the competing trading empires of Pisa and Genoa, until the Genoans finally gained full control  of the island in 1284. They ruled for the next 450 years despite lengthy attempts to wrest control from them by the Kingdom of Aragon, continued rebellious opposition from native Corsican noble families (signori), and the onslaught of malaria and famine.

Corsican Wars of Independence - 1729~1768:  during the later years of Genoese rule, resentment of Genoa's trade monopolies, high taxation and exclusion from real power spilled over. Influential bourgeois families who had benefitted from the boom in agriculture formed an articulate and ambitious leadership for a Corsican society growing in political maturity and aspirations. Matters came to a head in 1729 when discontent exploded into armed rebellion. The uprising spread quickly and was formalised in 1731 when the popular assembly declared national independence: Corsica gained the first constitution of any modern parliamentary democracy 50 years before the USA, and Diu vi salvi Regina, the hymn to the Virgin was adopted as national anthem. As with the American War of Independence, the European powers intervened with an eye to strategic advantage: first Austrian then French troops backed the weakened Genoese, and an English fleet supported the Corsican patriots led by their military commander Gian'Pietru Gaffori (see left). Gaffori was assassinated in 1753, and the Corsicans summoned Pascal Paoli, son of the exiled Corsican leader, to take over the rebellion. Paoli (see right) was elected leader of the Corsican nation: one of the most remarkable politicians of the Enlightenment and well-versed in constitutional theory, he introduced a democratic constitution based on the principles of sovereignty of the people and separation of powers, with wide suffrage and representative government. He founded the island's first University, set up a printing press and mint, and even managed to reduce vendetta killings through the death penalty. But events were overtaking the Corsicans: the Genoese finally ceded their claim to Corsica under the 1768 Treaty of Versailles, selling the island to France. Within a month, an invading French army inflicted a decisive defeat on the Corsican rebels at the Battle of Ponto-Nuovo: France became a French possession in May 1769, Paoli fled to England, and shortly after, a Corsican noble woman Letizia Bonaparte gave birth to her second son, Napoléon.

Napoléon and Corsica - 1769~1796:  although sporadic resistance continued after Paoli's exile, Corsica was assimilated into the French State. Napoléon's father, Carlo Bonaparte, once a loyal Corsican and supporter of Paoli, transferred the family's loyalty to France becoming ambassador to the French court, and along with the sons of other Corsican nobles, Napoléon was awarded a scholarship to a French military academy. Over the next 20 years of rule by the French monarchy, demands for independence subsided. With the French Revolution promising liberty, equality and fraternity, Corsica sought equal status and in 1789 became an integral part of France. The ban on political exiles was lifted and Paoli returned to Corsica the hero to be elected Council President. Paris' republican extremism however caused him to break with France and in 1793, he again declared Corsica's independence. The Bonaparte family packed their bags for France, never to return. Paoli called on help from England, and a British fleet was dispatched to oust the remaining French forces; it was in this action that the young Horatio Nelson lost his left eye. In return, the British demanded joint-rule of Corsica and Paoli was persuaded into exile again to London, this time for good. He died in 1807 and his memorial can now be seen in Westminster Abbey (see right). In 1796, Napoléon's forces retook Corsica which has been incontrovertibly French ever since. Napoléon never returned to the island of his birth during his period of power.

So that's the chequered and turbulent background story of Sardinia and Corsica so far. There is so much more to learn and to understand than the superficially misleading impressions formed by tourists sitting on Mediterranean beaches. We hope our travels will give the opportunity of learning more for ourselves about the two islands' distinctive identities, history and culture, and understanding more about peoples' opinion on the controversial issue of separatism and hopes for a politically and economically stable future. We set off in March and as usual we shall be publishing regular updates to our web site, with news and pictures of our travels. Add the site to your Favourites and share our travels; we should welcome your companionship.

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Music this week: Diu vi salvi Regina (Corsican anthem)

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